A Comparative Political History of Egypt and Iran focusing on Women and Veiling

The Colonial Era and Early Modernization (19th century - 1940s)

This era was marked by European imperialism, with colonial powers like Britain and France influencing governance, culture, and social structures. Colonial administrators often framed local customs, especially regarding gender and sexuality, as markers of backwardness, using them to justify intervention.

Modernity was equated with European norms, and practices like veiling became sites of contestation. For some, veiling symbolized cultural resistance to colonial domination, while others saw its removal as a path to progress and reform, reflecting tensions between colonial narratives and nationalist aspirations.

Egypt

• Egyptian reformers like Qasim Amin tied women’s liberation to national progress, emphasizing education and unveiling as signs of modernity.

  • His The Liberation of Women (1899) argued that improving women’s status was critical for Egypt to compete with the West.

• Veiling became a battleground for colonial authorities, who saw it as a symbol of oppression, and nationalists, who viewed it as a marker of cultural identity.

• Feminist movements emerged, most notably under leaders like Huda Sha’arawi, who established the Egyptian Feminist Union (1923) and emphasized education and public participation for women while adopting unveiling as a symbol of progress.

• Homosexuality was increasingly regulated under colonial-imported legal codes, such as Egypt’s Penal Code of 1883, which mirrored Victorian attitudes and laid the groundwork for later repression.

• Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt (1798-1801) introduced European concepts of modernization and marked the start of colonial exploitation.

• British Occupation (1882–1923) cemented foreign dominance over Egyptian political and economic systems.

• The 1919 revolution in Egypt was a nationwide uprising against British colonial rule, sparked by Egypt’s exclusion from post-World War I peace negotiations and the detention of nationalist leader Saad Zaghloul.

  • It was marked by broad base protest and strikes, culminating in Egypt gaining limited autonomy under a constitutional monarchy.
  • The dominant ideology of the 1919 revolution was a pan-Arab secular socialist vision uniting religious minorities and Muslim majorities under a shared anti-colonial goal.

• The 1919 Egyptian revolution birthed three dominant, competing ideologies in the Arab world.

  • Pan-Arab Secular Socialism envisioned unifying the Arab world (from Morocco to Iraq) under a secular and socialist framework. This vision rejected colonial domination and sought a future based on equality, tolerance, and economic justice.
  • Islamism, represented in Egypt by the Muslim Brotherhood, emphasized a pan-Islamic identity, advocating for laws and governance rooted in Sharia. Unlike the secular nationalists, they envisioned a unification of the Muslim world rather than the Arab world alone.
  • The Fu (Capitalist Modernizers) was a counter-ideology that embraced capitalism and saw Egypt’s traditional social structures as obstacles to modernization. (They were marginal compared to the other two ideologies.)

• The British Empire’s manipulation of Egypt after the 1919 revolution: While allowing limited autonomy, the British maintained military control and control over the Suez Canal, effectively denying Egypt full independence despite revolutionary efforts.

• King Farouk I (1936–1952) was the last king of Egypt from the Muhammad Ali dynasty.

  • Regime was seen as self-serving, aristocratic, and subservient to foreign powers.
  • Overthrown in the 1952 Free Officers’ Coup led by Gamal Abdel Nasser.

Iran

• Under the Qajar dynasty, modernization efforts were sporadic but paved the way for more aggressive reforms under Reza Shah (1925–1941).
• Tobacco Protests (1891-1892): Resistance to colonial economic influence through concessions, galvanizing national consciousness.
• Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911) pushed for modernization, introducing new legal structures that challenged traditional gender norms.
• Reza Shah (1925-1941) sought to modernize, aligning with European standards and using unveiling and education reforms as markers of progress.
  • The 1936 Unveiling Act, which banned veiling, symbolized a coercive modernization agenda that alienated conservative and rural populations.
• Same-sex desire, historically present in Persian literature, came under scrutiny as European norms reshaped Iranian discourses of morality and sexuality.

Nationalist and Secular Modernization (1940s - 1970s)

Post-WWII, decolonization and rising nationalist movements redefined gender roles, with women symbolizing national progress. States presented women’s expanded roles in education, labor, and public life as markers of modernization. However, these efforts often served as state propaganda, sidelining grassroots feminist movements and limiting women’s activism to state-defined frameworks.

At the same time, LGBTQ+ identities were suppressed, framed as “colonial imports” or “Western decadence” incompatible with national identity and modernization efforts.

Egypt

• After the 1952 Free Officers’ Coup, Nasser emerged as a charismatic leader of Pan-Arab nationalism and socialism, consolidating power under a secular, authoritarian regime.
• State feminism sidelined grassroots activists, promoting state-defined gender equality while suppressing dissent.
• Homosexuality and sex work were harshly suppressed as part of efforts to portray Egypt as morally pure and resistant to Western decadence.
• Law 10/1961, the Law on Combating Prostitution, was enacted in 1961.
  • The British left a legacy of brothels, which came to be viewed as a symbol of colonial moral corruption.
  • Article 9(c) criminalizes the vague practice of “debauchery,” which has been reinterpreted to criminalize same-sex activity.
• Gamal Abdel Nasser (1954–1970) advocated for anti-imperialist, Pan-Arab nationalism and socialism.
  • Ideology: Arab socialism, secular nationalism.
  • Nationalization of the Suez Canal (1956) was a landmark anti-imperialist move, asserting Egypt’s independence.
  • Land reforms redistributed land to rural farmers, aimed at reducing feudal inequalities.
  • Expanded access to healthcare and education, including for women, as part of national modernization.
  • Popular and charismatic leader, but criticized for authoritarianism and failing to democratize governance.
• Pan-Arabism sought to unite the Arab world under secular, socialist principles, but it also reinforced patriarchal nationalism.
  • The pan-Arab secular socialist dream envisioned a single unified state from Morocco to Iraq, which included tolerance for minority religions and a Sweden-like socialist economy—a radical vision for its time.
  • Women’s liberation was celebrated symbolically, but in practice, it often subordinated women’s rights to nationalist priorities.
  • Pan-Arab states like Nasser’s Egypt presented modernization as an antidote to religious “backwardness,” associating veiling with anti-modernity, while Islamists countered by portraying feminist and LGBTQ+ movements as imperialist and un-Islamic.
• The United Arab Republic (1958-1961): A short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria, which collapsed due to mismanagement and lack of cohesion.
  • Faced with collapse and fearing communist takeover, Syria voluntarily surrendered sovereignty to Egypt.
  • The short-lived republic dissolved due to mismanagement.
• During the 1950s and 60s, as Nasser’s pan-Arab socialism gained traction, the U.S. covertly supported Islamist groups like the Muslim Brotherhood to destabilize his regime. The Brotherhood rejected secularism and viewed pan-Arabism as an un-Islamic ideology.
  • The Muslim Brotherhood’s contrasting ideology was not pan-Arab but pan-Islamic, emphasizing a unified Islamic state stretching from Morocco to Indonesia, with no separation of religion and state.
  • Viewing the Brotherhood as a counterbalance to Nasser’s pan-Arabism and alignment with the Soviet Union, the U.S. indirectly supported the Brotherhood.
  • The Brotherhood’s rise created lasting tensions over the symbolic meaning of women’s bodies and their visibility in public life. Islamist narratives framed secularism and Western influence as moral corruption, associating unveiled women or feminist movements with imperialist agendas.
  • U.S. support for the Brotherhood was inconsistent and pragmatic rather than ideological. For example, post-Cold War, the Brotherhood’s anti-Western rhetoric and Islamist governance models often clashed with U.S. interests, leading to strained relations.
• The 1967 Six-Day War brought Egypt, Syria, and Jordan into conflict with Israel. Israel launched preemptive strikes and captured significant territories.
  • The war was a devastating blow to President Gamal Abdel Nasser’s pan-Arab socialist vision, as it weakened Egypt militarily, economically, and symbolically.
  • The loss of the Sinai, with its critical resources and strategic location, underscored Egypt’s vulnerability and shifted its focus toward reclaiming the territory, leading to eventual peace talks with Israel under Anwar Sadat.
  • The U.S. supported Israel as a regional proxy while exploiting divisions among Arab nations.

Iran

• The Pahlavi dynasty, under Mohammad Reza Shah (1941-1979), pursued aggressive modernization and secularization policies to align Iran with Western standards.
  • The Shah was an autocrat, especially later in his reign when he had better consolidated his power.
  • Employed the SAVAK, a ruthless secret police, to stifle dissent.
  • The Shah was focused on the communist threat, the remnants of Tudeh, possible Soviet activities. He believed economic prosperity would overcome political problems. The clergy were underestimated, seen as a vestige of the past and bypassed by secular modernization.
• Mohammad Mossadegh, Iran’s nationalist prime minister, represented a secular nationalist vision, opposing colonial exploitation of Iran’s resources.
  • His nationalization of the oil industry in 1951 challenged British control.
  • Supported by the Tudeh party, a communist party.
  • The Shia clergy felt threatened by Mossadegh, fearing he might undermine their power— appropriation of their land, perhaps even rejection of religion altogether.
  • However, his tenure was short-lived; a CIA- and MI6-backed coup in 1953 overthrew him, reinstating the Shah’s absolute power.
    • The Shia clergy also encouraged anti-Mossadegh sentiment.
• The White Revolution (1963) was a top-down modernization program that, in many ways, was successful.
  • The revolution implemented: 1) Women’s Suffrage: allowing women to vote and run for office, 2) Land Reform: Aimed at breaking up large estates and redistributing land to rural farmers, 3) Education Initiatives: Encouraged women’s participation in schools and public life.
  • Khomeini opposed the White Revolution, particularly women’s suffrage, the monarch’s power as un-Islamic, and “the rigging of elections and other constitutional abuses, neglect of the poor, and the sale of oil to Israel.”
  • Failures: The implementation was uneven and suffered logistical issues. For example, leaving many peasants landless, or having too few jobs in urban centers. Industrialization primarily benefited urban elites and foreign investors. The clergy and landowning elites felt alienated. Rapid modernization fueled cultural anxieties of rural and traditional communities.
  • Ultimately, the White Revolution deepened societal divisions, paving the way for the Shah’s eventual downfall.
• Women gained visibility in public roles, but these reforms alienated conservative factions.
• The government’s coercive approach to modernization fueled resentment, particularly among religious leaders who saw the erosion of traditional Islamic values as a threat to Iranian identity.
• The Shah’s modernization program also introduced Western moral frameworks, which criminalized same-sex practices that had historically been more tolerated in Persian society.
• LGBTQ+ communities were marginalized as the state promoted heteronormative family structures as part of its vision of modernization.
• The Family Protection Law of 1967 aimed to modernize and curtail patriarchal practices.
  • One of the most progressive in the region at the time, limiting polygamy, granting women the right to initiate divorce, and setting the minimum age of marriage at 15 for women and 18 for men. It also established family courts, giving women legal recourse in marital disputes.
• In the early 1970s, the U.S., especially Henry Kissinger, viewed Iran and Saudi Arabia as “twin pillars” of regional stability.
  • In 1972, the Nixon-Kissinger administration dramatically increased arms sales to the Shah of Iran, enabling him to position Iran as a regional policeman.
  • The policy planted the seeds of the Shah’s overreach, which contributed to economic discontent and, eventually, the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
• In 1975, the Shah abolished Iran’s two political parties, and replaced them with the Resurgence Party.
  • There was a large round of censorship and arrests of political prisoners.

Islamic Revival and Revolution (1970s and 1980s)

The Islamic Revival emerged as a backlash to Westernization and secular modernization, fueled by economic inequalities and dissatisfaction with authoritarian regimes. Islamic movements framed a return to “authentic” cultural and religious values as the solution to perceived moral corruption and authoritarianism.

Despite the ideological fervor of the 1919 revolution, the inability of Arab states to overcome external manipulation and internal fragmentation led to the decline of pan-Arab socialism by the 1970s.

Gender roles and sexuality became central to the political transformations in both Egypt and Iran, as states enforced stricter moral codes to consolidate power. LGBTQ+ identities were increasingly criminalized.

Egypt

• The rise of Islamist groups like the Muslim Brotherhood in response to Anwar Sadat’s neoliberal policies and Camp David Accords (1978) with Israel.

• Gender norms became stricter, with the re-emergence of the hijab as a symbol of piety and political resistance against Western interests.

• LGBTQ+ individuals faced state-sanctioned crackdowns.

• Anwar Sadat (1970–1981) shifted Egypt from socialism to neoliberalism, increasing inequality.

  • Ideology: Pragmatic authoritarianism with a tilt toward capitalism and conservatism.
  • Allowed more space for Islamist movements (e.g., the Muslim Brotherhood) to counterbalance leftist opposition, but clashed with them later.
  • Assassinated by Islamist extremists in 1981 due to perceived betrayal of Arab unity and Islamic principles.
  • Inifitah (economic “opening”)

• The 1973 Yom Kippur War led to Egypt’s pivot from the Soviet bloc toward U.S. influence, fracturing Arab unity.

  • Post-war Henry Kissinger applied his “divide and rule” triangular diplomacy.
  • Kissinger offered economic aid and U.S. diplomatic support to Sadat, encouraging his pivot away from pan-Arab socialism toward closer ties with the U.S. and eventual peace with Israel.

• Sadat signed the Camp David Accords (1978) and expelled Soviet advisors while strengthening ties with the U.S

  • The U.S. thereby broke the Egypt-Syria, securing Egypt’s isolation from the Arab coalition and weakening pan-Arab efforts.

• Hosni Mubarak (1981–2011) focused on maintaining a stable regime through heavy-handed security measures and suppression of opposition.

  • Ideology: Authoritarianism without clear ideological commitments beyond regime survival.
  • Continued Sadat’s neoliberalization and pro-U.S. policies, exacerbating inequality.
  • Overthrown during the Arab Spring in 2011 after decades of corruption, economic decline, and social unrest.

Iran

• The Islamic Revolution (1979) brought about sweeping transformation, using Islamic law to institute mandatory hijab and roll back many of the gender reforms from the Pahlavi era.
  • The revolution ultimately occurred because smaller, relatively peaceful protests were brutally cracked down. This led to more protests, which led to more crack downs. This process recurred, boiling over into the revolution.
  • The Islamic Revolution had several motivating factors, it was not just religious fundamentalism. People were dissatisfied with economic, inequality, political repression, and a corrupt regime.
  • In the U.S. we mostly remember the revolution for its burning of American flags and taking of hostages in the American Embassy. That belonged more to the second phase of the revolution, the chaotic period when the Islamic republic was being born.
  • One of the student hostage-takers, Massoumeh Ebtekar: “American lifestyles had come to be imposed as an ideal, the ultimate goal. Americanism was the model. American popular culture—books, magazines, film— had swept over our country like a flood… We found ourselves wondering, ‘Is there any room for our own culture?‘” (Reflections on the Origins of the Revolution of 1979 in Iran, Axworthy)
  • The Shah never quite understood why so many people detested him. He thought they were communists or supported by the British.
• The Islamic Republic of Iran was based on Kohmeini’s “velayat-e faqih”— a sharia law scholar would have ultimate authority.
• Women’s dress and behavior were regulated under strict Islamic codes, positioning women’s bodies as ideological battlegrounds.
• Segregation of public spaces (e.g., schools, workplaces, transportation) was imposed, reinforcing traditional gender roles.
• Same-sex desire was criminalized as a moral crime, including execution.
• The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), aka the First Gulf War began with the Iraqi invasion of Iran, until the acceptance of United Nations Security Council Resolution 598 by both sides.
  • Iraq sought to prevent Khomeini from exporting the new Iranian revolutionary ideology to Iraq.
  • U.S. policy actively manipulated both sides to weaken two regional powers. Support for Iraq’s Saddam Hussein coexisted with covert arms sales to Iran, exemplifying the doctrine’s “divide and destabilize” strategy.
• The 1983 Veiling Act imposed mandatory veiling for all women in public spaces, criminalizing unveiled appearances and aligning with Islamic ideals of modesty.
• Ayatollah Khomeini issued a 1983 fatwa permitting gender reassignment surgeries for “diagnosed transsexuals.”
  • Trans individuals steel face social stigma and discrimination.
• The revolution extinguished much of the feminist activism that had gained momentum during the Pahlavi era, replacing it with state-controlled women’s organizations.
• Despite promises of justice, the Islamic Republic’s economic policies entrenched poverty and widened class disparities, exacerbating public dissatisfaction.
• Middle East cold war between Iran and Saudi Arabia.
  • Post-1979, Saudi Arabia used Wahhabism to counter the ideological export of Iran’s Islamic Revolution.

The Contemporary Era: Digital Activism and The Arab Spring (1990s - present)

Digital platforms have transformed activism, providing spaces for feminist and LGBTQ+ movements to organize and connect globally. The Arab Spring uprisings (2011) spotlighted gender equality and sexual rights as part of broader demands for freedom and dignity. Governments have responded with heightened crackdowns on activists, often using anti-LGBTQ+ and anti-feminist rhetoric to bolster their legitimacy and suppress dissent.

Today, the Arab world comprises 6% of the world’s population but 50% of its refugees, largely due to the cycles of chaos initiated by colonial and Cold War-era interference.

Egypt

• After 2011, Egypt’s feminist movements faced renewed challenges under Abdel Fattah el-Sisi’s authoritarian regime, which has co-opted women’s rights for state purposes while criminalizing dissent.

• LGBTQ+ activism persists online but is met with severe repression.

• The infamous Queen Boat arrests (2001), where 52 men were arrested under charges of “debauchery,” marked a turning point in LGBTQ+ repression in Egypt.

• Mohamed Morsi (2012–2013) was the first democratically elected president after Mubarak’s fall.

  • Ideology: Political Islam with modern governance.
  • Affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood, representing an Islamist political vision.
  • Attempted to consolidate power, causing backlash from secular and liberal factions.
  • Overthrown in a military coup led by Abdel Fattah el-Sisi in 2013 amid mass protests against his rule.

• Abdel Fattah el-Sisi (2014–Present) led the military in a coup, overthrowing Morsi and instituting an authoritarian dictatorship.

  • Ideology: Militarism and authoritarian nationalism, emphasizing security over democracy.
  • Implemented austerity measures and infrastructure projects but faced criticism for worsening poverty.
  • Cracked down on political dissent, including Islamists, secularists, and LGBTQ+ communities.

• The 2017 Mashrou’ Leila concert crackdown occurs when concertgoers wave rainbow pride flags, including the now memorialized Sarah Hegazi, a lesbian activist who later died by suicide after being abused in prison and taking asylum in Canada.

Iran

• Women’s resistance movements have remained at the forefront of defiance against state-imposed gender norms, often mobilized by injustices related to the mandatory hijab and patriarchal policies.
• The Green Movement (2009) was a turning point for women’s political engagement. Women participated visibly in protests against election fraud, challenging state narratives on gender roles.
  • Women became symbols of resistance, cutting their hair and burning hijabs in public.
• Women’s resistance movements, such as the 2022 protests against the morality police sparked by the death of Mahsa Amini, demonstrate continued defiance against state-imposed gender norms.
• LGBTQ+ individuals navigate a complex landscape of limited state-sanctioned recognition (e.g., for trans individuals) and harsh repression, with online platforms serving as critical lifelines for community and advocacy.